Screening versus diagnosis

Screening estimates risk; it does not diagnose an individual dog. A hip score or elbow grade reflects radiographic appearance at the time of the X-ray. A DNA test reports genetic risk status for a specific variant. Neither replaces a clinical examination of a dog showing signs of pain or illness.

Phenotype versus genotype

Phenotype is what can be seen or measured — conformation, movement, clinical signs. Genotype is the set of genetic variants a dog carries, including hidden ones. Two dogs that look similar can carry different variants, and DNA testing can reveal risks that appearance does not show.

Clear, carrier, at risk

Clear means the DNA test found no copies of the tested variant. Carrier means one copy is present; the dog does not usually show the condition but can pass it on. At risk means two copies are present — but an "at risk" result does not mean the dog will certainly develop clinical disease. Penetrance varies, and some genetically at-risk dogs never show signs.

Hip scores and elbow gradesView source for this information

Under the BVA/Royal Kennel Club schemes, hip scores and elbow grades are assessed from radiographs by expert scrutineers. Lower hip scores and elbow grades represent less radiographic change. Results inform breeding decisions but are not a lifetime guarantee for the individual dog. Family results and genetic diversity also matter — one good score does not prove an entirely "healthy line."

Eye examinationView source for this information

The BVA/RKC/ISDS Eye Scheme examines the eye for inherited conditions. Eye screening is clinical, not genetic, and results reflect the examination on the day. Some eye conditions can develop later in life.

DM DNA testing

A DNA test for degenerative myelopathy reports genetic risk status. An "at risk" genotype does not mean the dog will certainly develop clinical DM. Breeding decisions should avoid producing genetically at-risk puppies without unnecessarily reducing diversity through simplistic exclusion of every carrier.

MDR1 testing

Some German Shepherds carry MDR1 variants affecting drug transport. A DNA result can inform veterinary prescribing, but owners must not withhold or change medication themselves — discuss any result with the treating vet.

Coefficient of inbreeding

The coefficient of inbreeding (COI) estimates how closely related the parents are. A lower COI generally supports genetic diversity, but COI is one tool among many — health, temperament, structure and screening results all matter alongside it.

Why one certificate is not proof of an entirely healthy line

A single health certificate does not prove that a whole line is free from every risk. Inherited conditions can be influenced by many genes and environment, and some conditions cannot be ruled out by a simple DNA panel. Family history, the diversity behind the pedigree, and the health and longevity of related dogs all matter.

How prospective puppy buyers can verify resultsView source for this information

Published BVA/RKC hip and elbow scores, eye scheme results and DNA test results can be verified independently. The Royal Kennel Club's Health Test Results Finder allows prospective buyers to check published results for a registered dog. Ask to see the relevant certificates for both parents, and verify rather than taking claims on trust.

Screening reduces risk at population and litter level. It does not guarantee that any individual dog will remain unaffected.